The Russian Archaeological Institute in Istanbul (1894-1914)

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Introduction In the late 19th century, archaeology was a suitable tool for those who wanted to connect the past with the present, legitimize current political projects with historical references, and base all of this on a relatively scientific foundation. Empires considered themselves as heirs to classical civilizations and competed for this role, a competition that manifested concretely in museums. On the other hand, nation-states also accepted artifacts within their territories as part of their national histories.

From the mid-19th century onwards, European travelers and researchers flocked to various regions of the Mediterranean and the Near East in search of traces of the ancient world. In the following years, the political, military, and economic competition among European empires began to manifest itself in archaeology as well. Particularly, artifacts coming from Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean basin, displayed prominently in major European museums like the Louvre and the British Museum, became symbols of prestige for these empires. Initially, excavations were conducted by travelers and diplomats without any formal training in archaeology, driven more by the desire to enrich their collections rather than scientific concerns, many of which caused permanent damage to historical artifacts. Over time, these gave way to more systematic excavations led by trained archaeologists.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

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Chapter I:

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In European media throughout the century, European archaeologists were depicted

as heroes who rescued the cultural heritage of ancient civilizations from the neglect

and indifference of "natives." An issue of the Illustrated Magazine of Art in 1853 stated:

"France and England share the honor of rescuing the most splendid remains of the ancient world

from the darkness of the underground and the oblivion of twenty-five centuries."

The evolving narrative of history in Europe drew an imaginary line connecting Mediterranean and

Near Eastern civilizations to Europe, shaping the development of human history along this

imaginary line. As a result, a Eurocentric historical discourse emerged, portraying

Europe as the legitimate heir to the civilization torch inherited from Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece,

and the Roman Empire. With the development of archaeology as a scientific discipline in the

second half of the 19th century, international competition intensified in Europe. Archaeological

institutes established by Europeans in important ancient centers such as Rome, Athens, and Cairo

brought researchers together from various parts of the world and became an extension of the political

power of the empires that sponsored these institutes.

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Chapter II:

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Russia joined the archaeological race among European empires relatively late. Russian archaeologists initially turned to regions within their own borders, Crimea, which had joined the empire in the late 18th century, and the Black Sea coasts of Ukraine to discover the Greco-Roman heritage. Thus, apart from the Hermitage, opened to the public in 1852, Russia's first museums were established on the coasts of the Black Sea. In this context, museums were

opened in Feodosia in 1811, Odessa in 1825, and

Kerch in 1826. Russia's first archaeological institute

abroad was established in Istanbul. Founded in 1894,

the Russian Archaeological Institute

(Ruski Arheologicheski Institut v Konstantinopole)

operated until the outbreak of World War I in 1914 and

made significant contributions,

particularly in Byzantine studies.

Unlike Western European empires, the general

intellectual tendency in Russia tended to associate

Russia with the Eastern Roman Empire, i.e., Byzantium.

Orthodox Christianity, which was the cornerstone of the

Russian imperial identity, was the most fundamental

element that connected Russia to Byzantium. In fact,

the image of Byzantium occupied a rather complex

place in Russian intellectual life, but by the late

19th century, there was a consensus among conservative

circles that Russia was the most legitimate successor

to the Byzantine Empire. This complex relationship

established between Russia and the Byzantine Empire

found visibility in the works of writers such as Nikolay

Danilevsky, Konstantin Leontyev, and Fyodor Dostoevsky

in various forms. While a significant portion of imperial

diplomats favored pursuing a realistic foreign policy aimed

at avoiding disrupting the balance of power in Europe,

Pan-Orthodox and Pan-Slavic sensitivities had been

recurring components of Russian foreign policy.

Despite the different poles in domestic policy among

intellectuals and politicians, there was an agreement that

Russia should pursue an active foreign policy

in the Balkans and the regions once ruled by

the Byzantine Empire. The activities of the Russian

Archaeological Institute demonstrated that the

perception of Russia's view of the Eastern Question and

Russia's Balkan policy was shaped not only by economic and strategic factors but also by Russia's imperial identity and its Slavic and Orthodox affiliations.

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Chapter III:

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The Russian Archaeological Institute in Istanbul was established during a period when the Macedonian crisis occupied European politics, and the Eastern Question remained a hot topic. Its activities shed light on how Byzantine heritage was perceived in Russia and what this heritage meant in the current political environment. The political reasons behind the institute's establishment were clearly articulated by diplomats and the institute's director, Fyodor Uspenski. Uspenski cited European Byzantine studies and expressed Russia's regret over lagging behind in this field, emphasizing not only an academic interest but also political sensitivities that connected Russia with Orthodox peoples living in the Ottoman Empire. He also stated that this connection imposed a responsibility on Russian scholars to learn the history of Byzantium and Orthodoxy since, according to Uspenski, it would be impossible for Russia to strengthen ties with its Slavic and Orthodox brothers without knowing its past; therefore, Byzantine studies would be compatible with the political interests of the Russian Empire. In fact, the most explicit evidence of how connected the institute was with foreign policy is that the idea of establishing an archaeological institute first emerged not in universities but in the Russian Embassy in Istanbul. Pavel Mansurov was the first to propose the idea of establishing an archaeology institute. Mansurov's project emphasized the importance of the Balkans for Russian foreign policy and stated that competition between Russia and European states in this region was inevitable. In addition to this competition, as seen in examples such as Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria, Mansurov expressed concern that newly independent Balkan nations might turn their backs on Russia shortly after gaining independence, warned of the dangers of relying solely on military power in foreign policy, and stated that European countries would fill this gap if cultural cooperation was not given the necessary importance, especially among educated sectors approaching European culture. In this context, by reminding Russia's "protective" role in the Balkans, Mansurov emphasized that these ties would be strengthened through scientific and cultural cooperation. 

 

Chapter IV:

 

Establishment Process and Objectives of the Institute The establishment process of the Russian Archaeological Institute enabled Russia to be recognized as a state interested in Byzantine heritage. During this process, the idea for the institute's establishment was put forward by Pavel Mansurov. Mansurov proposed the establishment of an archaeological institute to increase Russia's influence in the Balkans and to establish stronger ties with Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire. Mansurov's proposal was accepted by the Russian government, and the institute was founded in Istanbul in 1894.

The aim of the institute's establishment was to conduct scientific research in Byzantine history and archaeology, examine the remains of the Byzantine Empire, and enhance Russia's knowledge in this field. The institute aimed to strengthen the idea that Russia was the most legitimate heir to the Byzantine Empire through its efforts to preserve and research Byzantine heritage.

During the establishment process of the institute, various debates were held on how Byzantine heritage was perceived in Russia and what this heritage meant in the current political environment. The first director of the institute, Fyodor Uspenski, expressed his regret at Russia falling behind in Byzantine studies and argued that Russia needed to increase its efforts in this field. Uspenski emphasized that the institute's activities were not only of academic interest but also a political necessity.

 

Chapter V:

 

Uspenski and the Institute's Activities Fyodor Uspenski played a significant role as the first director of the Russian Archaeological Institute. Uspenski was a scholar specialized in Byzantine history and archaeology and conducted numerous excavations and research from the institute's inception. Under Uspenski's leadership, the institute examined various structures from the Byzantine period in Istanbul and its surroundings, thereby enriching knowledge in this field.

Through excavations and research conducted by the institute under Uspenski's leadership, many valuable artifacts were unearthed. These artifacts were sent to museums in Russia and made significant contributions to Byzantine historical studies. Uspenski closely followed developments in Byzantine studies in Europe and made efforts to ensure that Russia did not lag behind in this area.

Uspenski did not limit the institute's activities to archaeological excavations alone. He also prepared various publications on Byzantine history and culture and published the journal "Vizantiyski Vremennik," the institute's official publication. This journal published articles about excavations and research conducted by institute members, becoming a significant resource in Byzantine studies.

 

Chapter VI:

 

Institute's Ottoman Period Studies In addition to Byzantine studies, the Russian Archaeological

Institute conducted archaeological and historical research on other periods of the Ottoman Empire.

The institute undertook significant efforts in preserving and restoring artifacts from

the Ottoman period. Collaborating with other archaeological institutes and museums in the

Ottoman Empire, the institute conducted joint projects.

Within the scope of Ottoman period studies, the institute took the lead in examining and

documenting Ottoman structures in Istanbul and its environs. These efforts included studies on

prominent Ottoman structures such as the Topkapı Palace, Hagia Sophia, Süleymaniye Mosque,

and others. Contributing to restoration efforts on these structures, the institute made significant

strides in preserving Ottoman heritage.

 

Chapter VII:

 

Closure and Legacy of the Institute Due to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Russian Archaeological Institute had to cease its activities. Many members of the institute returned to Russia, and excavations and research in Istanbul were halted. The closure of the institute marked the end of Russia's leadership in Byzantine studies.

Nevertheless, the institute's work left a lasting legacy in Byzantine history and archaeology. Findings from the institute's excavations and published articles continued to be valuable sources for Byzantine studies. Additionally, the institute's activities increased interest in Byzantine studies both in Russia and internationally.

The legacy of the Russian Archaeological Institute continues to this day. The institute's work and findings shed light on modern Byzantine research and contribute to scientific endeavors in this field. Furthermore, the institute's legacy stands as an example of cultural and scientific cooperation between Russia and Turkey.

 

Chapter VIII:

 

Excavations and Scientific Contributions of the Institute The excavations conducted by the Russian Archaeological Institute in Istanbul enabled significant findings in Byzantine history and archaeology. The institute focused particularly on excavations and restoration efforts of Byzantine structures in Istanbul and its surroundings. Studies on important Byzantine structures such as Hagia Sophia, Basilica Cistern, and Little Hagia Sophia provided important insights into Byzantine architecture and art.

Artifacts unearthed during the institute's excavations provide valuable clues about Byzantine life, art, and daily activities. These artifacts include various findings such as ceramics, mosaics, frescoes, and architectural fragments from the Byzantine period. By documenting and analyzing these artifacts, the institute made substantial contributions to Byzantine historical research.

The institute not only limited itself to archaeological excavations but also examined written sources from the Byzantine period. In this context, studies were conducted on Byzantine manuscripts, archive documents, and other written sources, providing in-depth insights into Byzantine history and culture. By translating and publishing these written sources, the institute contributed significantly to the scholarly understanding of Byzantine history.

 

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Chapter IX:

 

Publishing Activities of the Institute The Russian Archaeological Institute prepared various publications to disseminate its research in Byzantine history and archaeology to a wider audience. The institute's journal "Vizantiyski Vremennik" became a significant resource in Byzantine studies. This journal published articles on excavations and research conducted by institute members, offering in-depth analyses on Byzantine history.

Additionally, the institute published various books and monographs to share its findings and analyses on Byzantine history and archaeology. These publications provide detailed information on excavations, findings, and analyses conducted by the institute. The publishing activities of the institute contributed to establishing an important literature in Byzantine studies and supported scientific research in this field.

 

Chapter X:

 

International Collaborations of the Institute The Russian Archaeological Institute placed great importance on international collaborations in Byzantine studies. The institute collaborated with other archaeological institutes and museums in Europe, conducting joint projects. These collaborations increased the sharing of knowledge and experience in Byzantine history and archaeology, facilitating significant international research.

Furthermore, the institute collaborated with other archaeological institutes and museums in the Ottoman Empire, conducting joint projects. These collaborations included efforts in preserving and restoring artifacts from the Ottoman period. Through collaborations with other archaeological institutes and museums in the Ottoman Empire, the institute contributed to significant steps in preserving Ottoman heritage.

 

Chapter XI:

 

Closure and Consequences The Russian Archaeological Institute was forced to cease its activities in 1914 due to the outbreak of World War I. As a result of the war, many members of the institute returned to Russia, and excavations and research in Istanbul were halted. The closure of the institute marked the end of Russia's leadership in Byzantine studies.

However, even after the closure of the institute, its research and findings left a significant legacy in Byzantine history and archaeology. The findings from the institute's excavations and published articles continued to be valuable sources for Byzantine studies. Additionally, the institute's activities increased interest in Byzantine studies both in Russia and internationally.

After the closure of the institute, cultural and scientific collaborations between Russia and Turkey continued, and the legacy of the institute continues to be preserved to this day. The institute's research and findings shed light on modern Byzantine research and contribute to scientific endeavors in this field. Furthermore, the institute's legacy stands as an example of cultural and scientific cooperation between Russia and Turkey.

 

Chapter XII:

 

Scientific Legacy of the Institute The Russian Archaeological Institute left a lasting legacy in the scientific world with its research in Byzantine history and archaeology. The institute's excavations and findings provided important information about the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire. These findings offer in-depth knowledge about Byzantine architecture, art, and daily life.

The artifacts unearthed during the institute's excavations are displayed in various museums in Russia today and are recognized as valuable sources for Byzantine studies. Additionally, the articles and books published by the institute have established an important literature in Byzantine history and archaeology. These publications shed light on modern Byzantine research and contribute to scientific research.

The scientific legacy of the institute extended beyond archaeological findings to include the translation and analysis of written sources from the Byzantine period. These translations and analyses offer a comprehensive understanding of Byzantine history and culture. The translations and analyses conducted by the institute hold a significant place in Byzantine historical research and guide scientific endeavors in this field.

 

Chapter XIII:

 

Cultural and Political Impacts of the Institute The Russian Archaeological Institute not only focused on scientific research but also created significant cultural and political impacts. The institute's activities demonstrated Russia's determination to preserve and protect Byzantine heritage. This strengthened Russia's relations with Orthodox peoples in the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire.

The institute's activities reinforced the idea that Russia was the legitimate heir to the Byzantine Empire and supported claims regarding Byzantine heritage. The institute's activities facilitated international collaborations aimed at preserving this heritage.

The cultural and political impacts of the institute were further strengthened through collaborations with other archaeological institutes and museums in the Ottoman Empire. These collaborations contributed to significant steps in preserving Ottoman heritage and developing archaeological studies in the Ottoman Empire.

 

Chapter XIV:

 

Closure and Aftermath The Russian Archaeological Institute ceased its activities in 1914 due to the outbreak of World War I. As a result, many members of the institute returned to Russia, and excavations and research in Istanbul were suspended. The closure of the institute marked the end of Russia's leadership in Byzantine studies.

However, even after the closure of the institute, its research and findings left a significant legacy in Byzantine history and archaeology. The findings from the institute's excavations and published articles continued to be valuable sources for Byzantine studies. Additionally, the institute's activities increased interest in Byzantine studies both in Russia and internationally.

After the closure of the institute, cultural and scientific collaborations between Russia and Turkey continued. The institute's legacy continues to be preserved to this day, shedding light on modern Byzantine research and contributing to scientific endeavors in this field. Furthermore, the institute's legacy stands as an example of cultural and scientific cooperation between Russia and Turkey.

 

Chapter XV:

 

Summary and Conclusion The Russian Archaeological Institute played a crucial role in advancing Byzantine studies during its active years. Founded in Istanbul in 1894, the institute aimed to strengthen Russia's influence in the Balkans and establish stronger ties with Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire. The institute conducted extensive research in Byzantine history and archaeology, excavating numerous Byzantine structures and artifacts.

Under the leadership of Fyodor Uspenski, the institute made significant contributions to Byzantine studies through excavations, publications, and collaborations. The institute's findings provided valuable insights into Byzantine architecture, art, and daily life. The closure of the institute in 1914 marked the end of Russia's leadership in Byzantine studies but left a lasting legacy in the scientific and cultural world.

The institute's legacy continues to be preserved through its research, findings, and publications, which remain valuable sources for Byzantine studies. The Russian Archaeological Institute stands as a testament to the cultural and scientific cooperation between Russia and Turkey and remains an important chapter in the history of Byzantine studies.

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Chapter XVI:

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The Russian Archaeological Institute shed light on the history of the Byzantine Empire through its archaeological excavations and research conducted in Istanbul. The Institute carried out comprehensive excavations in various parts of Istanbul, uncovering significant Byzantine structures and conducting detailed examinations of these buildings.

Hagia Sophia was one of the primary focuses of the Institute’s work. The Institute studied its architectural structure, mosaics, and other artworks, gaining significant insights into the history of this monumental building. Additionally, the restoration work carried out by the Institute contributed to the preservation and transmission of Hagia Sophia to future generations.

The Basilica Cistern (Yerebatan Sarnıcı) also held an important place in the Institute’s research. The Institute investigated the construction technique and purpose of the cistern, obtaining crucial information about water supply and storage systems during the Byzantine period. The research on the columns and other architectural details inside the cistern provided deep insights into Byzantine architecture.

The Little Hagia Sophia Mosque (Küçük Ayasofya Camii) was another significant Byzantine structure studied by the Institute. The Institute examined the mosque's function and architectural features during the Byzantine period, yielding important findings about its history. Furthermore, research on the frescoes and other decorations on the walls of the mosque offered valuable information on Byzantine art.

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Chapter XVII:

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Beyond Istanbul, the Russian Archaeological Institute conducted various archaeological excavations and research in other regions, expanding its knowledge base on Byzantine history and archaeology and bringing Byzantine remains in different regions to light.

The Institute explored Byzantine remains in several parts of Anatolia. These efforts included excavations in significant Byzantine centers such as Nicaea (İznik), Ephesus (Efes), and Trebizond (Trabzon). Through research on Byzantine structures in these areas, the Institute gathered important information about the Byzantine Empire’s presence in different regions.

Nicaea held a significant place in the Institute’s work as an important center of the Byzantine Empire. The Institute’s excavations of Byzantine churches, city walls, and other structures in Nicaea illuminated the city's role in Byzantine history. Artifacts like ceramics, mosaics, and other findings from Nicaea provided valuable insights into Byzantine art and crafts.

Ephesus was another vital Byzantine center studied by the Institute. The Institute’s excavations of Byzantine churches and other structures in Ephesus explored the city’s development during the Byzantine period. Findings from these excavations offered important clues about religious and social life during the Byzantine era.

Trebizond was also a key area for the Institute’s research. The Institute’s excavations of Byzantine churches, monasteries, and other structures in Trebizond uncovered the region's significance within the Byzantine Empire. Findings from these excavations provided valuable information about Byzantine architecture and art.

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Chapter XVIII:

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The Russian Archaeological Institute disseminated the results of its work and findings through scientific publications, creating an important knowledge base in Byzantine history and archaeology. The Institute’s published articles, books, and monographs covered various aspects of the Byzantine period, enriching the academic field.

The Institute’s notable publication, Vizantiyski Vremennik (Byzantine Chronicle), served as a key platform in Byzantine studies. Articles published in this journal provided detailed information on the excavations and research conducted by the Institute’s members, offering in-depth analyses of Byzantine history. This journal is recognized internationally as a respected publication in Byzantine studies.

The Institute also translated and published Byzantine written sources, contributing these to the academic world. These translations provided comprehensive information on Byzantine history and culture, forming an important resource for researchers. The Institute’s detailed analyses and commentaries enriched these written sources, making significant contributions to Byzantine studies.

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Chapter XIX:

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The Russian Archaeological Institute placed great importance on educational activities alongside its scientific research. The Institute organized various educational programs to train academicians specialized in Byzantine history and archaeology. These programs enabled students to gain in-depth knowledge of the Byzantine period and to specialize in this field.

The Institute increased knowledge sharing and contributed to academic discussions by organizing seminars, conferences, and workshops. These events allowed academicians from different countries to come together and share their knowledge and experiences. The Institute’s educational activities contributed to the formation of an academic community specialized in Byzantine studies.

Additionally, the Institute provided scholarships and research support to students, encouraging research in Byzantine studies. These scholarships and supports enabled young researchers to finance their studies on the Byzantine period and increase their knowledge base.

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Chapter XX:

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The works conducted by the Russian Archaeological Institute are regarded as an important cultural legacy today. Artifacts uncovered through the Institute’s excavations offer valuable resources in Byzantine history and archaeology. These artifacts are exhibited in museums, providing information to visitors interested in the Byzantine period.

The Institute’s published articles, books, and other scientific works form a significant reference source in Byzantine studies. These publications offer comprehensive information on the Byzantine period and guide researchers in their studies.

Academicians trained through the Institute’s educational activities continue to conduct significant studies in Byzantine studies today. The Institute’s legacy is maintained through these academicians, and the knowledge base in Byzantine history and archaeology continues to grow.

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Chapter XXI:

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The Russian Archaeological Institute has left a lasting legacy in the scientific world through its work in Byzantine history and archaeology. The excavations conducted, findings obtained, and publications made by the Institute have created a significant knowledge base in Byzantine studies. The Institute has increased the knowledge base on Byzantine history and archaeology and made significant contributions to scientific studies in this field.

The Institute’s educational activities enabled the training of academicians specialized in Byzantine studies, enhancing the quality of research in this field. By organizing seminars, conferences, and workshops, the Institute contributed to academic discussions and increased knowledge sharing.

The Institute’s cultural legacy is still maintained and continues to be an important reference source in research on Byzantine studies. The work conducted and findings obtained by the Institute shed light on modern Byzantine research and contribute to scientific studies in this field. The legacy of the Russian Archaeological Institute also holds an important place as an example of cultural and scientific cooperation between Russia and Turkey.